The Himba People

Tjike ("Hello" in Otjihimba): Introduction to the Himba People of Northern Namibia

 Environment

    The Himba people live in the northern regions of Namibia, mainly in the Kunene region (highlighted region in map to the right --> ). This region of Namibia typically receives sunlight around 300 days of the year. The Kunene region, where the Himba mainly live, is just above the tropic of Capricorn, which runs through the middle of Namibia. Due to its location on Earth, their seasons are on opposite times of the year as compared to our seasons. For instance, the winter runs through the months of June and August, these months tend to be dry. The summer is from November through February. Most of the rainfall seen in this region is between the months of September-November and February-April. The Kunene region tends to be low in humidity and the amount of rainfall varies from season to season. This region is also plagued by frequent droughts. As a result of inconsistent rain patterns, there isnt much diversity in vegetation. The region that the Himba live in are usually dry and mountainous. In this region, the most common animals found are sheeps, goats, cattle, among others. Due to the scarcity in resources, the Himba are a nomadic people. They are always on the move and settling into new areas.

Language

   Being descendants of the Herero people, the Himba speak a dialect of the Herero language called Otjihimba. The Herero language comes from a larger family of language called Bantu, which originates from the Niger-Congo region of Central Africa. The Herero language is spoken by roughly 250,000 people in Namibia and Botswana. The region where Herero language is spoken is called "Hereroland". The Herero language is written using the Latin Alphabet. This language is taught throughout many schools and universities in Namibia.

Gender Roles

    Like most other tribal societies, the himba people show strong separation in the roles of the men and women. Typically, the men are the warriors, the ones who bring food to the table, and the ones to are the authority in the tribe. The women on the other hand must maintain the household, raise the children, and provide for their husbands. In this culture, it is common for a man to have more than one wife, due to the importance of reproduction to the Himba people. In the Himba culture, a person's, whether man or woman, marital status can be determined by their clothing. Each man and women must wear a type of clothing that shows their marital status. The Himba women would wear her hair in a different fashion than the single women. The men, on the other hand, would wear a turban to demonstrate that they are married. In this society, social status is also determined by the clothing. The Himba women are usually topless and wear skirts made of goat skins that are decorated with shells and jewels. The Himba women are known for being the "red-women" of Africa since they cover their skin in a red paste, called otjize. The specific reason for this is not exactly known, but some believe that it is protection from the sun.  Some say that it is simply a cosmetic tradition much like make-up used in the western world.

Subsistence 

The Himba people are often described as "pastoral", or a people that live in rural/remote areas. Due to low vegetation and availability of water, the Himba have become a nomadic/semi-nomadic people. They are dependent of their livestock (goats, sheeps, cattle). They mainly depend on their cattle for their diets and for power. Since the Himba are nomadic people, they constantly have to travel with large herds of livestock.

Marriage

The Himba people are always wanting to reproduce. The Himba tribes want more offspring so that there can be more people to help with the livestock and to run the tribe. Because of this, it is common for the Himba men to have multiple wives/lovers as well as women having multiple spouses. When their husbands are away with the livestock, the women stay behind and have "affairs" with other men. As mentioned earlier, in the Himba tribes, men and women who are married wear different clothing than the single men and women. Due to the high number of sexual partners per person, the spread of aids has been an issue facing the Himba people.

Kinship

Since many men and women have offspring with partners outside of their marriage, kinship ties might be closer than what we would consider "normal". However, the definition of kinship is very specific to the Himba as the men only pass down the cattle to the offspring of his sister. This way, incest is monitored so that cattle can successfully be pass down from generation to generation. 

Religion

The Himba are a very spiritual people. The Himba show their worship by lighting a fire every morning called Okuruwo, or holy fire. To the Himba people, this fire represents their ancestors. By worshiping the fire of their ancestors, the Himba believe their ancestors will send messages to their god, Mukuru, as intermediates. Due to the importance of this fire, only the chief's home can have its entrance facing it. The rest of the homes must face away. At night, the Himba chief would light a torch from the fire and store it in his home to relight the fire in the morning. The main things the Himba people ask their God for is for rain and for their cattle to reproduce.

Artwork

The Himba people are constantly decorating their bodies with shells and jewelry made by the Himba women. As mentioned before, every morning, the Himba women apply red paste to their bodies as a type of cosmetic product, which is also used for protection from the sun. In this society, the men and women wear very minimal amounts of clothing due to the high temperatures. Generally, the clothes are made from goat skins which are decorated by shells and jewels.

Conclusion

The Himba are a people that live very distant from the "modern-western" world. Although they have contact with the western society, the Himba people have managed to maintain their traditional lifestyles. People are constantly visiting the Himba people as they represent a living "time-capsule" for this particular region in Africa. Unfortunately, some of the Himba traditions would be criticized because they go against the norms of western-lifestyle. However, the Himba people seem to be unaffected by the world outside their society and are also very welcoming to visitors, as read throughout many blogs and articles. Although Himba population is low in numbers, their traditions remain alive and show no sign of endangerment. Due to its remote location and disassociation with the western world, there is no direct influence from one side to another.

                         
                                                           BIBLIOGRAPHY 
http://goafrica.about.com/library/bl.himba.htm
http://www.namibian.org/travel/namibia/population/himba.htm
http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/11/world/africa/himba-namibia-inside-africa/index.html
http://www.southern-africa.arroukatchee.fr/namibia/people/himba.htm#life
http://traditionscustoms.com/people/himba-people
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3119766.stm

Art as a Culture

1. Functions of Early Art
           a. I believe that art is another form of communication, aside from the written language or the spoken language, art is a type of visual language. Through vivid images, artist can convey many different messages through their artwork. However, sometimes the interpretation of a piece of artwork varies from person to person, but that is the beauty of art. In this case, we were asked to analyze the cave paintings in the Lascaux caves of France. Like most cave art from around the world, most of the drawings are of animals. Through this artwork, I believe that the artists of the Lascaux caves were displaying their everyday lives. In my opinion, the cave paintings show what the lives of those people revolved around, hunting all day. Also, the paintings might have been used as a guideline as to which animals to hunt and which to avoid.

           b. The paintings in the Lascaux cave mostly show animals rather than human beings. Most of those animals are animals that were possibly hunted by these people. I believe that the lives of the cavemen of that time period revolved around animals on a daily basis. Also, I believe that the cave men of that time period worshiped animals as well.
           c. The paintings of the Lascaux cave tell us that the Paleolithic people were pretty intelligent since they recorded their lives through artwork. Maybe, these paintings were a tool of communication, similar to the hieroglyphics of Egypt.
           d. First of all, the paleolithic people had to gather and create the right materials to be able to paint on caves. Also, the artists of this time would have to be able to paint on the rough surfaces of the caves. Some paintings were also located on higher parts of the walls and ceilings. Somehow, the people would have to be able to reach the high altitudes to paint.
           e. In my opinion,the three main functions of art for the early humans were communication, rulebook/instructions, and for record keeping purposes. Aside from a simple hobby, I felt that art had very special purposes to early humans. I think that the early humans could have possibly communicated with each other via their artwork. Also, they could have painted their instructions when talking about hunting and how to treat animals. Also, they could have used art as a way of record keeping.

2. Commonalities in Function
            I think that artwork served the same purpose from the paleolithic times up until today. In my opinion, artwork sends a message to its viewers and through artwork, the artist is trying to convey a certain message. Also, artwork from the paleolithic times shows what kind of lifestyles the people lived in those days. Today, many pieces of artwork also show the type of lifestyles we live today.

3.My Favorite Art:

            My favorite type of artwork is photography. Sometimes, our daily lives go by too fast to realize what is going on around us. Through a photo, a simple cellphone snapshot or a professional photograph, we can pause time and record a specific moment in our lives. I believe that photographs can fulfill many purposes such as recording important events, spreading information, for entertainment, etc. My favorite thing about photography is that no special skill is required to take a picture. Anyone can take a photograph without requiring expertise in painting, drawing etc. Photography can be used for both formal and informal purposes. I believe that this form of art benefits people worldwide. Through photography, people can travel the world by looking at pictures without necessarily leaving their rooms. 

Politics and Violence

1. In the Yanomamo culture, the concept of "eye for an eye" is strictly followed. In the Yanomamo tribes, crimes such as murder are strongly chastised by members of the tribes. In the Yanomamo culture, it is the responsibility of the men of the tribe to get revenge for any transgressions. According to this article by Chagnon, 44% of males 25 and older have participated in a murder case. With respect to the Western Culture, the Yanomamo show equal disapproval for such crimes. However, the Yanomamo set stricter punishments. To a certain extent, the American justice system is somewhat similar, if we take into consideration the death penalty. However, the American justice system is a little more lenient and gives people a second chance to re-make their lives. I feel that there are flaws to both systems. For instance, the Yanomamo kill aggressors at no mercy. People in this culture are not given a chance to explain themselves or prove themselves innocent. On the other hand, the American justice system might be too light on punishment to some cases and people are not afraid to commit such crimes again.

2. Revenge killings are the result when one person from a tribe commits an aggression on a person of another tribe. As earlier mentioned, the Yanomamo follow a concept similar to that of "eye for an eye." As weapons, the Yanomamo use shouting matches, side-slapping duels, club fights, axes and matches, bows and arrows, etc. A lot of these revenge killings are the result of a battle of men for a woman. After the revenge killing takes place, the victim's tribe retaliates by sending a raid to the killers tribe and kill whoever comes in their path.


3. The benefits of unoakis is that life would be less rough once a man has gained that status. The men who gain the status of unoakis play a leadership role in the tribe. The unoakis are the ones who manage the way a tribe works and makes decisions, such as which killings to avenge. However, becoming an unoakis is quite hard as a lot of men die trying to gain that status. With comparison to the "non-unoakis", the unoakis, once they have this status, have a much easier life and have chances of living longer lives. However, to some people, the risk of attempting to become unoakis might not be worth the hassle.

4.
        a.The political structure of the Yanomamo tribes are mainly run by males, those who achieve the unoakis status. Like most other tribes around the world, and even in societies of the western world, men are the majority, if not completely, of decision makers. The Yanomamo men are also the ones who fight for their tribes and protect.
        b. In the Yanomamo culture, social status is set by who has achieved the unoakis and who has not. Also, gender plays an important role in the structure of this society.
        c. Each Yanomamo tribe is like an extended family. Some tribes have stronger kinship ties than others, but nonetheless, the Yanomamo people treat each other as a family. This is obviously seen in the existence of revenge killings. Those Yanomamo tribes which are closer will avenge more deaths caused upon their kin.
        d. The Yanomamo culture seems to be completely accepting of poly-amorous relationships. In this culture, it is perfectly fine for a man to have more than one wife. In this culture, the men with unoakis status are more attractive to their female counterparts, and have more wives.


5.   I believe that things that "people should not want to do" varies from culture to culture with respect of the beliefs, religion, and morals of the people that make up that culture. For instance, in the Aztec culture, it was an honor to be killed as a sacrifice to the Gods. However, in our culture, killing another human being is seen as an inhumane act. Another example of this would be the comparison of "dress-codes" for women in the Middle East with respect to women in the United States. Personally, I believe that passion can lead people to commit crimes such as murder. Whether it is passion from ambition, love for one's family, or the frustration of misfortunes, too much passion can make a person go crazy. Sometimes, our mind can make us go against our own moral values.

Kinship

1.     The person I interviewed for this assignment was my mother. She was born on February 22, 1972 in the state of Zacatecas in the heart of Mexico. Her parents, Andres and Cira Flores, had 8 children in total, unfortunately one passed away at the age of 6, before my mom was born. She grew up in a conservative Catholic household, who upheld the importance of out family values: honesty, respect, and unconditional love for family. Growing up in a small town, my mother was able to grow up in a humble and loving environment, where materialistic things were of no importance. On my mother's maternal side of the family, she has Spanish background. My grandmother's mother was from Zaragoza, Spain. She moved here to Mexico with her entire family and settled in the city of Zacatecas (capital of the state of Zacatecas). On my mother's paternal side, she is also has Spanish and French background. My grandfather's mother was from Spain as well and his father's mother was from France. Although she has many different cultures in her background, my mother considers her self 100% Mexican. 

2.   This interview was pretty interesting for me because this was the first time I asked my mother about our background. I was surprised to find out how many cultures make up my background. Including my father's side of the family, I also have descendance from Colombia. It is pretty interesting to realize how many cultures can be mixed within one person. Also, its interesting to find out how many people from different backgrounds meet in one place and have families.

3. In general, my family has a tradition of being quite extensive. Like many old traditional Mexican families, the more kids the merrier. Something I did notice, however, is that we tend to emphasize on the maternal sides of our families rather than our paternal sides. For instance, I usually tend to get more along with my mother's side of the family, the same goes for my mother and her siblings. Like in most other families, respect for one's elders is strictly emphasized in my family. Like I mentioned before, my family comes from different backgrounds, but in the end we are all the same, one big Mexican family. Although we have other backgrounds, we gladly show our Mexican pride as we cheer on our sports teams and wave the flag in great gratification.

4. Fortunately, I feel that I am attached to both sides of my families, my paternal and maternal sides. However, I do feel a bit closer to my mothers family side. Since I was at a young age, I would usually hang out or visit my mothers family more often. In my family, the women tend to have a lot to say when it comes to decision making. I have noticed that my family seems to have a matriarchal type structure. Through this assignment, I have realized/remembered several characteristics of my family that can possibly make it unique from many others.

Subsistence & Economy

Part One: Hunter-Gatherer vs Agricultural Lifestyles

       1. Benefits of Hunter-Gatherer/Agricultural Lifestyles:

                       --Hunter-Gatherer: Hunter-gatherer societies are nomadic and are constantly on-the-go. One of the benefits of these people are that they can adapt to different environments much easier. If disaster hits where they live, they don't necessarily have to stay there and can easily move. Part of this is due to the fact that hunter-gatherer groups are made up of a small amount of people. Living in small groups can also be beneficial because it would be much easier to govern and organize the roles of each person. Another benefit of living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle would be that we could avoid living in pollution. Since hunter-gatherers are on the go, they constantly settling new areas with no pollution.

                      --Agricultural: Agricultural groups are much bigger in size with regards to population and settle in a certain location. These agricultural communities are usually set up on land that can be easily cultivated or worked on. An important benefit of an agricultural society is that they are less dependent on hunting for animals. People in agricultural societies have more sources of food. Also, with larger groups, these people can assign different tasks and society would be better structured. In essence, there would be more jobs, less stress on people with regards for food, and protection. Living in such large groups, people can be given jobs other than just hunting, gathering, or in this case farming. People can work to protect the community, can fulfill the roles of the leaders, doctors, etc.

      2. Costs of Hunter-Gatherer/Agricultural Lifestyles:

                       --Hunter-Gatherer: Since hunter-gatherer groups are always moving, there are many potential illnesses or health risks that they encounter. Having to adapt to new environments, their bodies might not react in the best way possible. Also, hunter-gatherers have to hunt and gather day by day in order to survive. If nothing is caught in a day, there is nothing to eat. Because they are small groups, hunter-gatherers are vulnerable to attacks from larger groups.

                      --Agricultural: The leaders of agricultural societies are responsible for the well being of a much larger group of people in comparison to hunter-gatherer groups. Also, if the society gets too big, there might not be enough food to feed the entire population. With respect to health, living in large groups of people, illnesses can be spread easily. Another cost of living in an agricultural setting is that in case of a natural disaster, more people would be affected and the damage would be much greater.

       3.Healthier lifestyle, hunter-gatherers or agricultural societies:

                       - In my opinion, agricultural societies have healthier societies. The people in these societies have a more well-rounded diet with comparison to the agricultural societies. Because they have an established farming system, the people in agricultural societies can receive more vitamins, proteins,etc from many different sources other than just meat and some gatherings. In addition, hunters simply kill the first animal they see. By doing so, the people run risks of catching disease.

       4. Transition into Agricultural Lifestyles:

                      -In my opinion, people transitioned into agricultural lifestyles because it was a more efficient way of living. Hunting and gathering for day by day survival did not ensure the well being and the lives of the people in hunter-gatherer groups. Also, by joining agricultural societies, the people would be able to learn new things and  take part in society through other ways instead of just hunting and gathering.

Part Two: Economics and Trade

      1. Surplus and Trade:

                     -"There is a direct relationship between the availability of surplus and the ability to trade". The previous statement says that surplus and trade go hand-in-hand from an economic standpoint. In order for a nation to trade, they would need to have a surplus of whatever they are trying to trade. A nation must be sure it has enough to provide for the demand of its people before giving it away. For example, there must be enough meat to meet the demand of the American people before it trades it with other countries.

        2.Social-benefits of trade:

                      -Among the many benefits of trade, one of them is that, through trade, a new pool of resources becomes available for a nation. From an economic perspective, a nation can only produce from the natural resources it has available. For example, if a nation only has one tree, that one tree can only be used to create a certain amount of things. Through trade, a nation can gain new resources and multiply its manufacturing ability. Also, through trade, a nation can gain access to a resource not available within its own boundaries. Another benefit of trade is that new technologies can be transported around the world.

       3.Negative social results of trade:

                       -One of the biggest negative results from trade is war. Once someone gets a taste of something they like, they would do whatever to get it. Unfortunately, some nations, especially the United States, like to manipulate other countries to get what they want. Nations like the U.S use force to overpower other countries and take over their resources. The most common resource being manipulated at the moment is oil. Due to the high demand of oil, the US government has to look for oil outside of its boundaries to meet the demand of its people.

        4.Development of Agriculture & Trade:

                        -The development of agriculture and trade are two things that facilitated the industrialization of the world via the industrial revolution. First of all, in agricultural societies, families farm in order to live. Because big lots of land are required to farm, sometimes there could be a surplus of certain crops. Since farming families dedicate their time to only farming certain crops, they must get other sources of food elsewhere. This is where trade comes in, families trade crops in order to have everything they need. For example, if family A grows corn and family B raise cattle, the two families could trade to have better diets. This previous example is a metaphor for what goes on in the real world. Certian countries specialize in certain things and trade with others. 

 

The Importance of Language

Language Experiment

Part 1

     The first part of the experiment was to participate in a "conversation" with someone else. However, for this part, we were not allowed to talk, write, or use any form of official sign language (i.e ASL). In order to conduct the first part of the experiment, my partner and I had to choose a subject we would discuss about. Due to how busy my day had been, I was going to try to explain in detail what I did throughout that day. Normally, this conversation is bound to come up on a daily basis of ones life. One always tells a person how their day went and what they did. However, I never imagined how hard it could possibly be if we couldn't talk or write. At first, I spent a few minutes contemplating how to express what I wanted to say. Eventually, we started used a "charades"-type technique to talk to each other. Then, I would also try drawing what I did if it was too hard to express via hand movements and gestures. After I got the hang of it after the first 5-8 minutes and the conversation seemed to flow a little better. However, I highly doubt I would be able to do this on a daily basis. The first 10 minutes of this part of the experiment were pretty frustrating for my partner. He found a hard time trying to understand what exactly I was trying to say. Instead of comprehending what I want to say, sometimes he would just laugh at how ridiculous I must have looked. However, once I began drawing some things I wanted to say, it became a little easier. 
          From an outside perspective, it is easy to say that the culture that uses symbolic language would have an advantage in communicating ideas. However, that might be a little ethnocentric from a anthropologists perspective. Although that other culture may not have the common symbolic language, they might have developed another type of culture which could be just as efficient, or maybe even more. Nevertheless, this experiment can be quite hard for those of us that have never attempted anything like this. In our culture, there still are people that might have to live their lives with different ways of communicating. For instance, people with disabilities, such as a hearing impairment or being mute, might have to communicate another way, the most common would be sign language.

Part 2

       This part of the experiment allowed us to use only spoken language. When first reading the description of this part of this experiment, one immediately thinks that it would be simple. However, being limited to only spoken language, it also becomes a little hard to express ourselves in a more detailed manner. Although this part wasn't as hard for me as the first part was, I struggled to express myself like I normally do. Most of us don't notice how much we move or how our facial expressions change as we talk. I believe that these movements or facial expressions help us add more detail and emotion to what we are trying to communicate. When I did this part of the experiment, I felt that I might have been a bit monotone and humorless. Without all of these movements and expressions, I feel like our conversations would be a bit bland and flavorless. Nevertheless, I was still able to conduct this part of the experiment for the full 15 minutes. With some of the things I said, my partner wasn't sure if I was being completely serious or sarcastic. I feel that all of those extra movements add an extra spice to the spoken language. In real life, there are people who have to communicate without "non-speech language techniques". The majority of these people, in my opinion, are those who are blind.

Part 3

       I believe that written language is just as important as spoken language. If we had been able to write in part one of this experiment, I think it would have been just as easy. The scenario of part one would have been the same as passing notes in a high school classroom, easily communicated. Although we would not be able to add the extra detail spoken language provides, we would have been able to communicate just as easy. I feel that the written language is very important because it can be a way to reach many people around the world. For example, books, by writing one copy, everyone around the world can read the same. In my opinion, the written language has taken a big part in "globalization." For instance, written language can be used to record what was said in spoken language, and therefore ideas can spread fast. All in all, all components of language (spoken, written, visual, etc) play an important role in today's society. It can provide barriers amongst people as well as tear them down.
   

Human Culture vs The Environment

For this assignment, our task was to study and compare two separate cultures with regards to how their environment has shaped their development. The two cultures that were studied for this assignment were the Zulu of South Africa and the Andean Indians of South America.

Population A: the Zulu of South Africa
          1.The Zulu people live in the country of South Africa, at the southern tip of the African continent. The latest census count shows that there is around 11 million Zulu people in South Africa. Due to the geographical location of South Africa, the weather tends to be somewhat bipolar year round. In this part of the world, the seasonal changes are very obvious. The summers in South Africa tend to be hot and wet while the winters are cold and dry. Such conditions have probably led the Zulu people to adapt to the constant change in temperatures. The homeland of the Zulu, called the KwaZulu-Natal is a region with very little vegetation (covered with small bushes and grasslands). This subtropical region receives a lot of sunlight year round and the UV rays also add on stress on the Zulu people.

          2. The high amount of UV rays and lack of shade, due to low vegetation, have made the Zulu people adapt via dark pigmentation. The dark pigmentation is created by having higher amounts of melanin, which helps protect the human body from UV rays and prevents radiation damage. Also, most of the Zulu people tend to be tall and slim. This physical characteristic helps their bodies keep cooler temperatures and protect them from the hot temperatures of the African continent. Like the majority of people of African descent, the Zulu people have hair which allows them to keep cooler body temperatures.

         3. As seen through many pictures, it is evident that the Zulu people wear the most minimal amount of clothing possible. Some women in the Zulu culture don't conceal their breasts. All this is probably due to the high heat in the region. Therefore, as a culture, they have adapted to allow more nudity in order to adapt to the high temperatures of their homeland.

           4. To society in general, the Zulu people would be considered an Sub-Saharan African race. One usually determines someone's race solely based on their physical appearance. However, we must take into consideration cultural aspects as well. In this case, the Zulu people have many characteristics, both physically and culturally, that most people would consider African.

Population B: The Andean Indians
         1. The Andean Indians live in the Andean region of the South American continent. The Andes are a "mountainous chain" that ranges from Colombia to the Southern tip of Argentina. Due to the extensive range of land this region covers, the weather changes with respect to the geographical location. The majority of the Andean Indians tend to live in the higher altitudes of the Andes.

       2. Due to the high altitude of their homeland, the Andean indians have built the lung capacity to survive in such altitudes, up to 9,000 feet above sea level. Most people would not be able to live in such high altitudes. Also, the Andean people have had to adapt to the extremely cold temperatures in the Andes during the winter season.

       3. In order to keep warm, the Andean clothing tends to be made of wool and other thick/warm substances.Because of this, people in the Andean region breed llamas and other animals that can provide warm clothing. As mentioned before, the Andean Indians live on the Andes Mountain Range, which reaches high altitudes. In order to harvest food, the Andean people have had to learn to farm on mountains and tight spaces.

       4. Personally I would consider the Andean Indians as an indigenous, or Native American, of Latin America. The Andean Indian people have customs similar to those that were observed in ancient "Latin-American" civilizations, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Wayuu, and more closely to the Incas of Peru.

Summary:
         As an anthropologist, I think it is important to study both physical and cultural aspects of people. In order to understand a culture more, we should study all aspects of it and what contributed to its development. In my opinion, the environment plays a big role in how a peoples' culture develops. Therefore, I think environment provides an explanation as to why people in the same region have similar customs and physical appearances. However, one should not assume that because two different people look like each other are also exactly the same culturally.

Sources:
http://www.southafrica.info/travel/advice/climate.htm
http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Zulu.html
http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/aflang/zulu/culture.html
http://www.zulu-culture-history.com/
http://www.talktalk.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0028672.html
http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Andean+Indian
http://www.native-languages.org/andean-culture.htm